art history

Folio from a Qur’an.   Arab, North Africa, or Near East. Abbasid. c. eighth to ninth century C.E. Ink, color, and gold on parchment. The Qur'an is the sacred text of Islam, consisting of the divine revelation to the Prophet Muhammad in Arabic. However, the word Qur'an, which means “recitation,” suggests that manuscripts were of secondary importance to oral tradition. The art of producing a mushaf began well before a pen was ever dipped into ink. The dimensions of each page were calculated before the parchment was cut, and the text was carefully situated relative to the edges of the pages. These materials suggest both the dignity of the sacred text and the wealth of its patron, who was probably a member of the aristocratic elite. In addition to the high quality and large quantity of materials used, the deliberate geometric planning of the page conveys the importance of the text that it contains.  Scribes also had some freedom in composing a page. They could emp

Great Mosque (Masjid-e Jameh). Isfahan, Iran. Islamic, Persian: Seljuk, Il-Khanid, Timurid and Safavid Dynasties. c. 700 C.E.; additions and restorations in the 14th, 18th, and 20th centuries C.E. Stone, brick, wood, plaster, and glazed ceramic tile. Most cities with sizable Muslim populations possess a primary congregational mosque. Diverse in design and dimensions, they can illustrate the style of the period or geographic region, the choices of the patron, and the expertise of the architect.  It is an architectural documentary, visually embodying the political exigencies and aesthetic tastes of the great Islamic empires of Persia. Another distinctive aspect of the mosque is its urban integration. Positioned at the center of the old city, the mosque shares walls with other buildings abutting its perimeter. Due to its immense size and its numerous entrances, it formed a pedestrian hub, connecting the arterial network of paths crisscrossing the city. The mosque facilita

Dome of the Rock. Jerusalem. Islamic, Umayyad. 691–692 C.E., with multiple renovations. Stone masonry and wooden roof decorated with glazed ceramic tile, mosaics, and gilt aluminum and bronze dome. One of the most iconic images of the Middle East is undoubtedly the Dome of the Rock shimmering in the setting sun of Jerusalem. Sitting atop the Haram al-Sharif, the highest point in old Jerusalem, the Dome of the Rock’s golden-color Dome and Turkish Faience tiles dominates the cityscape of Old Jerusalem and in the 7th century served as a testament to the power of the new faith of Islam. The Dome of the Rock is one of the earliest surviving buildings from the Islamic world. This remarkable building is not a mosque, as is commonly assumed and scholars still debate its original function and meaning. when the Dome of the Rock was completed, there was intermittent warfare in Arabia and Holy Land around Jerusalem. The first Arab armies who emerged from the Arabian peninsula were fo

The Kaaba. Mecca, Saudi Arabia. Islamic. Pre-Islamic monument; rededicated by Muhammad in 631–632 C.E.; multiple renovations. Granite masonry, covered with silk curtain and calligraphy in gold and silver-wrapped thread. Pilgrimage to a holy site is a core principle of almost all faiths. The Kaaba, meaning cube in Arabic, is a square building elegantly draped in a silk and cotton veil. Located in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, it is the holiest shrine in Islam. In Islam, Muslims pray five times a day; these prayers were directed towards Mecca and the Kaaba rather than Jerusalem. This direction is marked in all mosques and enables the faithful to know in which direction they should pray. Upon arriving in Mecca, pilgrims gather in the courtyard of the Masjid al-Haram around the Kaaba. They then circumambulate and hope to kiss and touch the Black Stone.  The Kaaba was a sanctuary in pre-Islamic times. Muslims believe that Abraham—known as Ibrahim in the Islamic tradition—and his son, Ism

Buddha. Bamiyan, Afghanistan. Gandharan. c. 400–800 C.E. (destroyed in 2001). Cut rock with plaster and polychrome paint. Prior to their recent destruction, the 6th-7th century, rock-cut Buddha sculptures in the Bamiyan Valley of central Afghanistan were considered the largest in the world. Known collectively as the Bamiyan Buddhas, the two monumental sculptures have amazed both Buddhist and non-Buddhist visitors for more than a thousand years. Importance of the Buddhist faith and the Bamiyan Valley during this period. Bamiyan is located between the Indian subcontinent (to the southeast) and Central Asia (to the north), which made it an important location close to one of the most important branches of the Silk Route.  The Silk Route was an ancient series of linked trade routes that connected the East to the West and carried both material wealth and ideas. Bamiyan’s central location along the Silk Route, along with its fertile plains amid harsh terrain, made it an ideal loca

Petra, Jordan: Treasury and Great Temple. Nabataean Ptolemaic and Roman. c. 400 B.C.E.–100 C.E. Cut rock. The prominence of the tombs in the landscape led many early explorers and scholars to see Petra as a large necropolis (cemetary); however, archaeology has shown that Petra was a well-developed metropolis with all of the trappings of a Hellenistic city. The tomb facades draw upon a rich array of Hellenistic and Near Eastern architecture and, in this sense, their architecture reflects the diverse and different cultures with which the Nabateans traded, interacted, and even intermarried.  Today scholars believe that the tombs were probably constructed when the Nabateans were wealthiest between the second century B.C.E. and the early  second century C.E. Archaeologists and art historians have identified a number styles for the tomb facades, but they all co-existed and cannot be used date the tombs. The few surviving inscriptions in Nabataean, Greek, and Latin tell us about

Presentation of Fijian mats and tapa cloths to Queen Elizabeth II. Fiji, Polynesia. 1953 C.E. Multimedia performance (costume; cosmetics, including scent; chant; movement; and pandanus ber/hibiscus ber mats), photographic documentation.  On December 17, 1953, a newly crowned Queen Elizabeth II and her husband Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, arrived on the island of Fiji, then an English colony. The first thing you might notice in the photograph is the procession of Fijian women making their way through a group of seated Fijian men and women. Several of the processing women are wearing skirts made of barkcloth painted with geometric patterns. Barkcloth, or masi, as it is referred to in Fiji, is made by stripping the inner bark of mulberry trees, soaking the bark, then beating it into strips of cloth that are glued together, often by a paste made of arrowroot.  Bold and intricate geometric patterns in red, white, and black are often painted onto the masi; often presented

Malagan display and mask. New Ireland Province, Papua New Guinea. c. 20th century C.E. Wood, pigment, fiber, and shell. This figure was made for malangan, a cycle of rituals of the people of the north coast of New Ireland, an island in Papua New Guinea. Malangan express many complex religious and philosophical ideas. They are principally concerned with honoring and dismissing the dead, but they also act as affirmation of the identity of clan groups, and negotiate the transmission of rights to land. ​ Malangan sculptures were made to be used on a single occasion and then destroyed. They are symbolic of many important subjects, including identity, kinship, gender, death, and the spirit world. The figure also alludes to the identity of that clan group; talks elements from an animal which represents the clan.  It was one a group of carvings made to be displayed at a particular malangan ritual. It is made of wood, vegetable fiber, pigment and shell (turbo petholatus opercula).

Navigation chart. Marshall Islands, Micronesia. 19th to early 20th century C.E. Wood and fiber. The Marshall Islands in eastern Micronesia consist of thirty-four coral atolls consisting of more than one thousand islands and islets spread out across an area of several hundred miles. In order to maintain links between the islands, the Marshall Islanders built seafaring canoes. These vessels were both quick and maneuverable. In order to determine a system of piloting and navigation the islanders devised charts that marked not only the locations of the islands, but their knowledge of the swell and wave patterns as well. The charts were composed of wooden sticks; the horizontal and vertical sticks act as supports, while diagonal and curved ones represent wave swells.  Cowrie or other small shells represent the position of the islands.  The information was memorized and the charts would not be carried on voyages.

 Tamati Waka Nene. Gottfried Lindauer. 1890 C.E. Oil on canvas. Paintings record likenesses and bring ancestral presence into the world of the living.  this portrait is not merely a representation of Tamati Waka Nene, it can be an embodiment of him.  Portraits and other taonga tuku iho (treasures passed down from the ancestors) are treated with great care and reverence.  After a person has died their portrait may be hung on the walls of family homes to be spoken to, wept over, and cherished by people with genealogical connections to them. Māori are the indigenous people of New Zealand. The subject of this portrait, Tamati Waka Nene, was a Rangatira or chief of the Ngāti Hao people in Hokianga, of the Ngāpuhi iwi or tribe, and an important war leader. He was probably born in the 1780s, and died in 1871. He lived through a time of rapid change in New Zealand, when the first British missionaries and settlers were arriving.  In this portrait, Nene wears a kahu kiwi, a fine

Hiapo (tapa). Niue. c. 1850–1900 C.E. Tapa or bark cloth, freehand painting. Women's arts historically utilized soft materials, particularly fibers used to make mats and bark cloth. Women’s arts included ephemeral materials such as flowers and leaves. Terminology, decorations, dyes, and designs vary through out the islands. Generally, to make bark cloth, a woman would harvest the inner bark of the paper mulberry (a flowering tree). The inner bark is then pounded flat, with a wooden beater or ike, on an anvil, usually made of wood. Methods vary per culture.  Design illustrations involved geometric motifs in an overall ordered and abstract patterns. The most important traditional uses for tapa were for clothing, bedding and wall hangings. Textiles were often specially prepared and decorated for people of rank. Tapa was ceremonially displayed on special occasions, such as birthdays and weddings. At times of death, bark cloth may be integral part of funeral and burial rit

Polynesia means literally “many islands.” South Pacific.  Our knowledge of ancient Polynesian culture derives from ethnographic journals, missionary records, archaeology, linguistics, and oral traditions. Polynesians represent vital art producing cultures in the present day. Polynesians were distinguished by long-distance navigation skills and two-way voyages on outrigger canoes. Native social structures were typically organized around highly developed aristocracies, and beliefs in primo-geniture (priority of the first-born). At the top of the social structure were divinely sanctioned chiefs, nobility, and priests. Artists were part of a priestly class, followed in rank by warriors and commoners. Polynesian cultures value genealogical depth, tracing one’s lineage back to the gods. Oral traditions recorded the importance of genealogical distinction, or recollections of the accomplishments of the ancestors. Cultures held firm to the belief in mana, a supernatural power associated wi

  Buk (mask). Torres Strait. Mid- to late 19th century C.E. Turtle shell, wood, fiber, feathers, and shell. Torres Strait - series of islands between Australia and New Guinea; Mabuiag Island; Turtle shell mask; human face; on top face/body of a bird; feathers We only find this material in the Torres Strait. Raffia resembles hair; frigate bird.  Pieces stitched together; feathers, shell; textured. One part of an elaborate costume; used in costume; audience; wind would affect the hair/feathers. Meant to be dynamic, moving.  Bird seen as a totem; connected to lineage; connected the culture to the supernatural; turtle shell was actively traded; many masks destroyed; outsiders collected them; created for tourism?  Items had prestige. 

Female deity. Nukuoro, Micronesia. c. 18th to 19th century C.E. Wood. Nukuoro is a small isolated atoll in the archipelago of the Caroline Islands. It is located in Micronesia, a region in the Western Pacific. An atoll is a ring-shaped coral reef including a coral rim that encircles a lagoon partially or completely. Archaeological excavations demonstrate that Nukuoro has been inhabited since at least the eighth century.  All the sculptures, ranging in size from 30 cm to 217 cm, have similar proportions: an ovoid head tapering slightly at the chin and a columnar neck. The eyes and nose are either discretely shown as slits or not at all. The shoulders slope downwards and the chest is indicated by a simple line. Some female figures have rudimentary breasts. Some of the sculptures, be they male, female or of indeterminate sex, have a sketchy indication of hands and feet. The buttocks are always flattened and set on a flexed pair of legs. Local deities in Nukuoro resided in a

Staff god. Rarotonga, Cook Islands, central Polynesia. Late 18th to early 19th century C.E. Wood, tapa, fiber, and feathers. Representations of the deities worshipped by Cook Islanders before their conversion to Christianity included wooden images in human form, slab carvings and staffs such as this, known as "god sticks." It is made of ironwood wrapped with lengths of barkcloth. The upper part of the staff consists of a carved head above smaller carved figures. The lower end is a carved phallus. Some missionaries removed and destroyed phalluses from carvings, considering them obscene. The shaft is in the form of an elongated body, with a head and small figures at one end. The other end, composed of small figures and a naturalistic penis, is missing.  The only surviving wrapped example of a large staff god, this impressive image is composed of a central wood shaft wrapped in an enormous roll of decorated barkcloth. There are no other surviving large staff-gods fro

‘Ahu ‘ula (feather cape). Hawaiian. Late 18th century C.E. Feathers and olona fiber. The Hawaiian male nobility wore feather cloaks and capes for ceremonies and battle. Such cloaks and capes were called 'ahu'ula, or "red garments." Across Polynesia the color red was associated with both gods and chiefs. In the Hawaiian Islands, however, yellow feathers became equally valuable, due to their scarcity. Tiny bundles of feathers were attached to the netting in overlapping rows. This small cape has a shaped neckline which would closely fit the wearer. Large numbers of feathered cloaks and capes were given as gifts to the sea captains and their crews who were the earliest European visitors to Hawaii; passed onto patrons/leaders who financed their voyages.  It is not known who brought this particular cape to England.

 Moai on platform ( Hoa Hakananai'a ) . Rapa Nui (Easter Island). c. 1100–1600 C.E. Volcanic tuff gures on basalt base. Easter Island is famous for its stone statues of human figures, known as moai (meaning “statue”). The island is known to its inhabitants as Rapa Nui. The moai were probably carved to commemorate important ancestors until the second half of the seventeenth century. Over a few hundred years the inhabitants of this remote island quarried, carved and erected around 887 moai. The size and complexity of the moai increased over time.  It is one of only fourteen moai made from basalt, the rest are carved from the island’s softer volcanic tuff.  It would have stood with giant stone companions, their backs to the sea, keeping watch over the island. Its eyes sockets were originally inlaid with red stone and coral and the sculpture was painted with red and white designs.  It has a heavy eyebrow ridge, elongated ears and oval nostrils. The clavicle is emphasize

Nan Madol. Pohnpei, Micronesia. Saudeleur Dynasty. c. 700–1600 C.E. Basalt boulders and prismatic columns. Off the island of Pohnpei in Micronesia, lies the ancient city of Nan Madol, the only ancient city ever built upon a coral reef. no records exist as to when exactly it was built, where the enormous rocks came from, how they were transported there, and for what reason it was constructed on top of a reef. They were deeply religious and sometimes cruel, and modern Pohnpeians view the ruins as a sacred and scary place where spirits own the night. Most of the islets served as residential area, however some of them served special purpose, such as food preparation, coconut oil production or canoe construction.  There are no sources of fresh water or possibilities to grow food on Nan Madol so all supplies had to be brought in from the mainland. The population of the city probably included a large number of commoner servants. Nan Madol had been abandoned by the time the first E

Art of the Indigenous Americas is among the world’s oldest artistic traditions. While its roots lie in northern Asia, it developed independently between c. 10,000 B.C.E. and 1492 C.E., which marked the beginning of the European invasions. Regions and cultures are referred to as the Indigenous Americas to signal the priority of First Nations cultural traditions over those of the colonizing and migrant peoples that have progressively taken over the American continents for the last 500 years.

Introduction of guns, Christianity, and European commodities to West Africa. African cultures never existed in isolation—there was always movement, trade, and the exchange of ideas. African art is dynamic and has changed in form, function, and meaning over time. During the slave trade and colonization, for example, some artists created work to come to terms with these horrific events—experiences that often stripped people of their cultural, religious and political identities. While slavery had long existed in Africa, the transatlantic slave trade constituted a mass movement of peoples over four and a half centuries to colonies in North and South America. Ten million people were taken to labor on cotton, rum, and sugar plantations in the new world. Territorial disputes, poverty, famine, corruption, and disease increased as a result of the brutality of the slave trade and European colonization. With the collapse of the Atlantic slave trade in the 19th century, European imperialis

The artistic enhancement of objects of utilitarian function reflect and reinforce an individual’s standing and status in society.  Details of form and decoration personalize an object, marking it as the property of a specific individual and, occasionally, providing information about ethnic affiliation, social status, or rank. Personal adornment and dress are important forms of aesthetic expression. Scarification and hairstyle, in particular, are regarded by Africans as means by which the body is refined and civilized. Specifics of bodily ornamentation are often depicted in fine detail on masks and figurative sculpture, indicating their importance as symbols of cultural, personal, and/or professional identity  Certain forms of textiles identify the wearer by age or status and may also convey personal identity Textiles have also historically been conceived as a form of wealth and their extensive use comments upon the wearer’s access to riches.

In many African societies, art plays an important role in various rites of passage throughout the cycle of life. These rituals mark an individual’s transition from one stage of life to another. The birth of a child, a youth’s coming of age, and the funeral of a respected elder are all events in which an individual undergoes a change of status. During these transitional periods, individuals are considered to be especially vulnerable to spiritual forces. Art objects are therefore created and employed to assist in the rite of passage and to reinforce community values. The birth of a child is an important event, not only for a family but for society as well. Ideals of motherhood and nurturance are often expressed visually through figurative sculpture. The importance of motherhood is symbolized by a gently swelling belly and lines of scarification radiating from the navel, considered the source of life. figural sculptures are employed in ceremonies designed to assist women having diffi

Political institutions in Africa that predate European colonization have ranged from large, centralized kingdoms led by a single ruler to smaller, village-based societies. In many different societies, leaders are considered to be semi-divine. In less centralized societies, power is not vested in a single individual.  African political institutions were dramatically impacted by colonial rule. In centralized states, leaders have historically played an important role as patrons of the arts They commissioned a wide range of prestige objects, distinguished by the lavish use of luxury materials (see below), as well as complex architectural programs.  Works made of metal, ivory, or beads were not only visually spectacular, but also reminded the public of the king’s wealth and power. Handheld objects, such as flywhisks, staffs, and pipes, are used as personal regalia to indicate rank and position within the court. Among smaller, village-based societies, in which governance is distribu

Form and meaning Realism or physical resemblance is generally not the goal of the African artist. Many forms of African art are characterized by their visual abstraction, or departure from representational accuracy.  Artists interpret human or animal forms creatively through innovative form and composition. The decision to create abstract representations is a conscious one.  Idealization is frequently seen in representations of human beings. Individuals are almost always depicted in the prime of life, never in old age or poor health. Masks used by the women’s Sande society, for example, present Mende cultural ideals of female beauty..Instead of a physical likeness, the artist highlights admired features, such as narrow eyes, a small mouth, carefully braided hair, and a ringed neck. Idealized images often relate to expected social roles and emphasize distinctions between male and female. Full breasts and a swelling belly highlight a woman’s role as nurturer.  Many African artw

many tradition-based African artifacts serve a specific function.  The objects African artists create, while useful, also embody aesthetic preferences and may be admired for their form and composition. Sculpture of the human figure should emphasize a strong muscular body, refined facial features, and elaborate hairstyle and scarification patterns.  African aesthetics generally have an ethical or religious basis.  Although in the Western world, aesthetics is often equated with beauty, artists in some African cultures create works that are not intended to be beautiful. Such works are deliberately horrific in order to convey their fearsome powers and thereby elicit a strong reaction in the viewer.  Animals with special attributes—such as antelopes, snakes, leopards, and crocodiles—are represented in art for symbolic purposes.  Representations of animals consuming other animals may serve as a metaphor for competing spiritual or social forces. Their depiction is meant to encour

In those parts of the continent that are not heavily urbanized, Africa’s geography and climate have especially impacted the development of different artistic traditions. In agricultural communities, seasonal patterns of rainfall and drought affect cultivation and, by extension, their cultural practices. An alternation between rainy and dry seasons is seen throughout much of Africa, in varying degrees.  Dry seasons allow opportunities for part-time artisans to create artifacts and for people to organize festivals and other large-scale social events that employ such art forms. Frequent droughts forced populations to migrate often or adopt a nomadic lifestyle.  As a result, their artistic expression has focused on relatively personal traditions such as body ornamentation, rather than larger scale wooden sculpture. Throughout the continent, there is found a diversity of societies, languages, and cultures; Africans define themselves in many different ways: by occupational caste, villag

Veranda post of enthroned king and senior wife (Opo Ogoga). Olowe of Ise (Yoruba peoples). c. 1910–1914 C.E. Wood and pigment. vertical sculpture; structural posts of a palace porch; celebration of king's power; source of power; community exaggerated proportions; while the king is the focal point, his portrayal suggests a ruler's dependence on others. This veranda post is one of four sculpted for the palace at Ikere by the renowned Yoruba artist Olowe of Ise. It is considered among the artist's masterpieces; unique style, interrelationship of figures Olowe was a master of composition; surface ornamentation complements formal properties elaborate hairstyles, decorative patterning on the bodies, waist beads; details don't distract The pattern of the layer of beads around the queen’s wrist is reiterated in the beaded pattern on the crown.  Of the three veranda posts commissioned, this one—the central post of the outer courtyard of the palace of Ise—is the m

Lukasa (memory board). Mbudye Society, Luba peoples (Democratic Republic of the Congo). c. 19th to 20th century C.E. Wood, beads, and metal. Special objects known as lukasa (memory boards) are used by experts in the oral retelling of history in Luba culture.  The recounting of the past is performative and includes dance and song. Touching and feeling the beads, shells, and pegs to recount history and solve current problems. The Luba Kingdom of the Democratic Republic of Congo was a very powerful and influential presence from the sixteenth to the early twentieth centuries in central Africa.  Their art highlights the roles that objects played in granting the holders the authority of kingship and royal power. The Luba people are one of the Bantu peoples of Central Africa and the largest ethnic group in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.  The Luba had access to a wealth of natural resources including gold, ivory, and copper, but they also produced and traded a variety o

 Great Mosque of Djenné. Mali. Founded c. 1200 C.E.; rebuilt 1906–1907. Adobe. As one of the wonders of Africa, and one of the most unique religious buildings in the world, the Great Mosque of Djenné, in present-day Mali, is also the greatest achievement of Sudano-Sahelian architecture It is also the largest mud-built structure in the world. The Great Mosque that we see today is its third reconstruction, completed in 1907. According to legend, the original Great Mosque was probably erected in the 13th century.  King Koi Konboro—Djenné’s twenty-sixth ruler and its first Muslim sultan (king)—decided to use traditional design techniques to build a place of Muslim worship in town.  The mosque compound continued to expand over the centuries.  The Great Mosque that we see today is rectilinear in plan and is partly enclosed by an exterior wall. An earthen roof covers the building, which is supported by monumental pillars. The roof has several holes covered by terra-cotta

Wall plaque, from Oba’s palace. Edo peoples, Benin (Nigeria). 16th century C.E. Cast brass. brass plaque, dated between 1550-1680 depicts an Oba (or king) and his attendants from the Benin Empire—a powerful kingdom located in present-day Nigeria.  Oba has distinctive coral beaded regalia.  Attendants hold shields above his head, either to protect him from attack or possibly from the hot, tropical sun. hierarchic scale; figures vary in size The Oba would have travelled with a large cohort of attendants, warriors, servants, diplomats, chieftains, and priests. The plaque originally hung alongside many others on posts throughout the palace of the Oba. The order of their placement on these posts would have told the history of the royal lineage of Benin’s Obas.  the sequence of plaques is lost to us since they were long held in storage when found by westerners in the 19th century.  Today, artists working in brass in Benin are part of a brass workers guild reconciling traditio

Reliquary figure (Eyema-o-Byeri) Fang peoples (southern Cameroon). c. 19th to 20th century C.E. Wood. wooden sculpture; reliquary; talisman; warned off harm; warning to others; guardian of family bones, sacred relics; meant for high status; noble person; special warriors, talented craftsmen; fertile women; nomadic/semi-nomadic; elderly men consulted them when a great decision was to be made elongated torso; large rounded head; closed mouth, eyes looking down; arms clasped; powerful musculature; calm and contemplative; power and strength; coiled up energy; umbilical cord/belly button highlighted; childbirth/fertility valued in society  puppets during an initiation; figures presented as symbols of unity of the clan; popular hairstyle; high status; intentionally not natural; meant to represent spiritual ideas; abstract  limbs very cylindrical and rounded; conceptual; idea of a guardian figure; realism not an interest; ward of people; guardian of an important box/relic/etc. 

 Pyxis of al-Mughira. Umayyad. c. 968 C.E. Ivory. hunting scenes  cylindrical box with a separate lid  royal workshops produced luxurious objects detailed sculpture  A pyxis is a cylindrical box used for cosmetics. This particular pyxis was a gift to the then-eighteen-year-old al-Mughira, the son of a caliph, perhaps as a coming-of-age present.  is among the best surviving examples of the royal ivory carving tradition in Al-Andalus (Islamic Spain). It was probably fashioned in the Madinat al-Zahra workshops and its intricate and exceptional carving set it apart from many other examples; it also contains an inscription and figurative work which are important for understanding the traditions of ivory carving and Islamic art in Al-Andalus. carved ivory objects had been important elements of the artistic canon of the Mediterranean. Ivory was durable, smooth, elegant, and easily carved, making it highly desirable for the creation of diptychs, pyxides (the plural of pyxis), and i

Aka elephant mask. Bamileke (Cameroon, western grass elds region). c. 19th to 20th century C.E. Wood, woven rafIa, cloth, and beads. Beaded mask; Kuosi society; Cameroon; central Africa; masquerade; costumes; performers; honoring the king, social harmony; worn with leopard skin pelt and full body costume; leopard and elephant symbol of king's power Divine king could transform into elephant; leopard thought to transform into human; connection of divine rule and powerful animals; worn by court officials, warriors, titleholders Patterns relate to those on the leopard; animals are symbol of power; full of energy and dynamism; various materials, shapes and colors all brought together

Ikenga (shrine figure). Igbo peoples (Nigeria). c. 19th to 20th century C.E. Wood. 177. Nigeria, Ikenga are carved wooden figures; made for a warrior; seated on a stool, important signifier of honor; right hand holds a sword, expression of power; left holds a human head Ikenga means "Power of the right hand"; personal spirit of one's achievements, ability; motivates the user; ram horns big as the entire body; curl at the top; vertical and horizontal abstract horns  saying that they take things head on; emphasize power, aggression; decorative patterns; reference scarification; scars on forehead mean higher status; not a portrait; symbolic representation of power; authority and accomplishment 

Bundu or Sowei Helmet Mask (Ndoli Jowei) Sande Society, Mende peoples (West African forests of Sierra Leone and Liberia). 19th to 20th century C.E. Wood, cloth, and ber. helmet mask; Sande society; several groups participated in masquerade; tradition; worn on top of head; person's face obscured; men made mask; women wore it; ritual for/made by women deep black sheen; smooth, glistening surface; small mouth, petite ears; downcast eyes; reserved; elaborated hairstyle; continuing tradition; rolls of fat under chin; suggest enough weight to bear children; after initiation, meant to marry event intended to fatten her up; scarification marks on cheeks. 

Portrait mask (Mblo). Baule peoples (Côte d’Ivoire). Early 20th century C.E. Wood and pigment. central Côte d’Ivoire in West Africa have a rich carving tradition. Many sculpted figures and masks of human form are utilized in personal shrines and in masquerade performances. This mask was part of a secular masquerade in the village of Kami in the early 1900s. The Baule recognize two types of entertainment masks, Goli and Mblo. To perform a Mblo mask, like the one depicted, a masker in a cloth costume conceals his face with a small, wooden mask and dances for an audience accompanied by drummers, singers, dancers, and orators in a series of skits. To the Baule, sculpture serves many functions and these can shift over time and within different contexts. Masks like this one were not intended to be hung on a wall and appreciated for their physical characteristics; A carving of a figure can be utilized by practitioners to communicate with ancestors and spirits. The physical presence

Female (Pwo) mask. Chokwe peoples (Democratic Republic of the Congo). Late 19th to early 20th century C.E. Wood, ber, pigment, and metal. Chokwe people, Democratic Republic of Congo Meant for dancing; resembles woman, worn by men Made by man; meant to honor women; particularly those young, fertile, or successful in childbirth; mothers; important stage in life Matrilineal culture; wood; very thin; graceful, fluid dancing; whole bodysuit sense of calm in the face; closed eyes, mouth; respected; doesn't need to open eyes, she's already knowing deep red; earth, oil; white powder around her eyes; symmetrical face; wide forehead accentuated by hairstyle; constant circles; pounded eyes around the eyes; tattoo patterns Broke away from larger culture; ideal woman; ideal virtues; fashionable hairstyle at the time; performed for women

Power gure (Nkisi n’kondi). Kongo peoples (Democratic Republic of the Congo). c. late 19th century C.E. Wood and metal. Sacred medicines and divine protection are central to the belief of the Kongo peoples (Democratic Republic of Congo).  Nkisi: represented as a container of sacred substances which are activated by supernatural forces that can be summoned into the physical world.  Visually, these minkisi can be as simple as pottery or vessels containing medicinal herbs and other elements determined to be beneficial in curing physical illness or alleviating social ills. In other instances minkisi can be represented as small bundles, shells, and carved wooden figures.  Minkisi represent the ability to both ‘contain’ and ‘release’ spiritual forces which can have both positive and negative consequences on the community. A power figure is a magical charm seemingly carved in the likeness of human being, meant to highlight its function in human affairs A nkisi nkondi can act as a

Ndop (portrait figure) of King Mishe miShyaang maMbul. Kuba peoples (Democratic Republic of the Congo). c. 1760–1780 C.E. Wood. During the first half of the eighteenth century, the Kuba King Mishe miShyaang maMbul was celebrated throughout his kingdom for his generosity by a  great number of his loyal subjects.  At the height of his reign in 1710, he commissioned an idealized portrait-statue called an ndop. With the commission of his ndop, Mishe miShyaang maMbul recorded his reign for posterity and solidified his accomplishments amongst the pantheon of his predecessors. The ndop that portrayed his likeness.  frican sculptures served as important historical markers within their communities. The ndop sculptural record helps freeze a moment in time that would otherwise be transformed during its transmission from generation to generation. Since information and history was transferred orally in Africa, sculptural traditions like the ndop can help us gain insight into informati

Sika dwa ko (Golden Stool). Ashanti peoples (south central Ghana). c. 1700 C.E. Gold over wood and cast-gold attachments. Incredibly important to the Ashanti peoples, still used today; falls from the sky, miraculous object; wooden stool covered in gold, a symbol; more important than the ruler; sacred; symbolises royalty of Ashanti people; area rich in gold; responsible for gold trade in North Africa; gold reserved for royal use Taken by colonisers; Ashanti people hid the object; British hunted it down. Stools/inanimate objects valued in this culture; objects hold personal aura, the soul of the person. The gold stool is the soul of the Ashanti nation. 

Conical tower and circular wall of Great Zimbabwe. Southeastern Zimbabwe. Shona peoples. c. 1000–1400 C.E. Coursed granite blocks. Southern Africa; 9th-15th century  Royal residence for the King. stone wall 7 meters high Shona peoples; from Sahara Desert, settled Circular monument, Great Enclosure; temple or royal residence Entirely built in stone; no organised way of building Conical tower; represents power of the king Culture still stands today ZIMBABWE: HOUSE OF STONE  TRADING CENTER  QUEENS RESIDENCE