art history

Introduction of guns, Christianity, and European commodities to West Africa. African cultures never existed in isolation—there was always movement, trade, and the exchange of ideas. African art is dynamic and has changed in form, function, and meaning over time. During the slave trade and colonization, for example, some artists created work to come to terms with these horrific events—experiences that often stripped people of their cultural, religious and political identities. While slavery had long existed in Africa, the transatlantic slave trade constituted a mass movement of peoples over four and a half centuries to colonies in North and South America. Ten million people were taken to labor on cotton, rum, and sugar plantations in the new world. Territorial disputes, poverty, famine, corruption, and disease increased as a result of the brutality of the slave trade and European colonization. With the collapse of the Atlantic slave trade in the 19th century, European imperialis...

The artistic enhancement of objects of utilitarian function reflect and reinforce an individual’s standing and status in society.  Details of form and decoration personalize an object, marking it as the property of a specific individual and, occasionally, providing information about ethnic affiliation, social status, or rank. Personal adornment and dress are important forms of aesthetic expression. Scarification and hairstyle, in particular, are regarded by Africans as means by which the body is refined and civilized. Specifics of bodily ornamentation are often depicted in fine detail on masks and figurative sculpture, indicating their importance as symbols of cultural, personal, and/or professional identity  Certain forms of textiles identify the wearer by age or status and may also convey personal identity Textiles have also historically been conceived as a form of wealth and their extensive use comments upon the wearer’s access to riches.

In many African societies, art plays an important role in various rites of passage throughout the cycle of life. These rituals mark an individual’s transition from one stage of life to another. The birth of a child, a youth’s coming of age, and the funeral of a respected elder are all events in which an individual undergoes a change of status. During these transitional periods, individuals are considered to be especially vulnerable to spiritual forces. Art objects are therefore created and employed to assist in the rite of passage and to reinforce community values. The birth of a child is an important event, not only for a family but for society as well. Ideals of motherhood and nurturance are often expressed visually through figurative sculpture. The importance of motherhood is symbolized by a gently swelling belly and lines of scarification radiating from the navel, considered the source of life. figural sculptures are employed in ceremonies designed to assist women having diffi...

Political institutions in Africa that predate European colonization have ranged from large, centralized kingdoms led by a single ruler to smaller, village-based societies. In many different societies, leaders are considered to be semi-divine. In less centralized societies, power is not vested in a single individual.  African political institutions were dramatically impacted by colonial rule. In centralized states, leaders have historically played an important role as patrons of the arts They commissioned a wide range of prestige objects, distinguished by the lavish use of luxury materials (see below), as well as complex architectural programs.  Works made of metal, ivory, or beads were not only visually spectacular, but also reminded the public of the king’s wealth and power. Handheld objects, such as flywhisks, staffs, and pipes, are used as personal regalia to indicate rank and position within the court. Among smaller, village-based societies, in which governance is...

Form and meaning Realism or physical resemblance is generally not the goal of the African artist. Many forms of African art are characterized by their visual abstraction, or departure from representational accuracy.  Artists interpret human or animal forms creatively through innovative form and composition. The decision to create abstract representations is a conscious one.  Idealization is frequently seen in representations of human beings. Individuals are almost always depicted in the prime of life, never in old age or poor health. Masks used by the women’s Sande society, for example, present Mende cultural ideals of female beauty..Instead of a physical likeness, the artist highlights admired features, such as narrow eyes, a small mouth, carefully braided hair, and a ringed neck. Idealized images often relate to expected social roles and emphasize distinctions between male and female. Full breasts and a swelling belly highlight a woman’s role as nurturer.  Man...

many tradition-based African artifacts serve a specific function.  The objects African artists create, while useful, also embody aesthetic preferences and may be admired for their form and composition. Sculpture of the human figure should emphasize a strong muscular body, refined facial features, and elaborate hairstyle and scarification patterns.  African aesthetics generally have an ethical or religious basis.  Although in the Western world, aesthetics is often equated with beauty, artists in some African cultures create works that are not intended to be beautiful. Such works are deliberately horrific in order to convey their fearsome powers and thereby elicit a strong reaction in the viewer.  Animals with special attributes—such as antelopes, snakes, leopards, and crocodiles—are represented in art for symbolic purposes.  Representations of animals consuming other animals may serve as a metaphor for competing spiritual or social forces. Their depi...

In those parts of the continent that are not heavily urbanized, Africa’s geography and climate have especially impacted the development of different artistic traditions. In agricultural communities, seasonal patterns of rainfall and drought affect cultivation and, by extension, their cultural practices. An alternation between rainy and dry seasons is seen throughout much of Africa, in varying degrees.  Dry seasons allow opportunities for part-time artisans to create artifacts and for people to organize festivals and other large-scale social events that employ such art forms. Frequent droughts forced populations to migrate often or adopt a nomadic lifestyle.  As a result, their artistic expression has focused on relatively personal traditions such as body ornamentation, rather than larger scale wooden sculpture. Throughout the continent, there is found a diversity of societies, languages, and cultures; Africans define themselves in many different ways: by occupational cast...

Veranda post of enthroned king and senior wife (Opo Ogoga). Olowe of Ise (Yoruba peoples). c. 1910–1914 C.E. Wood and pigment. vertical sculpture; structural posts of a palace porch; celebration of king's power; source of power; community exaggerated proportions; while the king is the focal point, his portrayal suggests a ruler's dependence on others. This veranda post is one of four sculpted for the palace at Ikere by the renowned Yoruba artist Olowe of Ise. It is considered among the artist's masterpieces; unique style, interrelationship of figures Olowe was a master of composition; surface ornamentation complements formal properties elaborate hairstyles, decorative patterning on the bodies, waist beads; details don't distract The pattern of the layer of beads around the queen’s wrist is reiterated in the beaded pattern on the crown.  Of the three veranda posts commissioned, this one—the central post of the outer courtyard of the palace of Ise—is the m...

Lukasa (memory board). Mbudye Society, Luba peoples (Democratic Republic of the Congo). c. 19th to 20th century C.E. Wood, beads, and metal. Special objects known as lukasa (memory boards) are used by experts in the oral retelling of history in Luba culture.  The recounting of the past is performative and includes dance and song. Touching and feeling the beads, shells, and pegs to recount history and solve current problems. The Luba Kingdom of the Democratic Republic of Congo was a very powerful and influential presence from the sixteenth to the early twentieth centuries in central Africa.  Their art highlights the roles that objects played in granting the holders the authority of kingship and royal power. The Luba people are one of the Bantu peoples of Central Africa and the largest ethnic group in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.  The Luba had access to a wealth of natural resources including gold, ivory, and copper, but they also produced and trad...

 Great Mosque of Djenné. Mali. Founded c. 1200 C.E.; rebuilt 1906–1907. Adobe. As one of the wonders of Africa, and one of the most unique religious buildings in the world, the Great Mosque of Djenné, in present-day Mali, is also the greatest achievement of Sudano-Sahelian architecture It is also the largest mud-built structure in the world. The Great Mosque that we see today is its third reconstruction, completed in 1907. According to legend, the original Great Mosque was probably erected in the 13th century.  King Koi Konboro—Djenné’s twenty-sixth ruler and its first Muslim sultan (king)—decided to use traditional design techniques to build a place of Muslim worship in town.  The mosque compound continued to expand over the centuries.  The Great Mosque that we see today is rectilinear in plan and is partly enclosed by an exterior wall. An earthen roof covers the building, which is supported by monumental pillars. The roof has several holes cov...

Wall plaque, from Oba’s palace. Edo peoples, Benin (Nigeria). 16th century C.E. Cast brass. brass plaque, dated between 1550-1680 depicts an Oba (or king) and his attendants from the Benin Empire—a powerful kingdom located in present-day Nigeria.  Oba has distinctive coral beaded regalia.  Attendants hold shields above his head, either to protect him from attack or possibly from the hot, tropical sun. hierarchic scale; figures vary in size The Oba would have travelled with a large cohort of attendants, warriors, servants, diplomats, chieftains, and priests. The plaque originally hung alongside many others on posts throughout the palace of the Oba. The order of their placement on these posts would have told the history of the royal lineage of Benin’s Obas.  the sequence of plaques is lost to us since they were long held in storage when found by westerners in the 19th century.  Today, artists working in brass in Benin are part of a brass workers gui...

Reliquary figure (Eyema-o-Byeri) Fang peoples (southern Cameroon). c. 19th to 20th century C.E. Wood. wooden sculpture; reliquary; talisman; warned off harm; warning to others; guardian of family bones, sacred relics; meant for high status; noble person; special warriors, talented craftsmen; fertile women; nomadic/semi-nomadic; elderly men consulted them when a great decision was to be made elongated torso; large rounded head; closed mouth, eyes looking down; arms clasped; powerful musculature; calm and contemplative; power and strength; coiled up energy; umbilical cord/belly button highlighted; childbirth/fertility valued in society  puppets during an initiation; figures presented as symbols of unity of the clan; popular hairstyle; high status; intentionally not natural; meant to represent spiritual ideas; abstract  limbs very cylindrical and rounded; conceptual; idea of a guardian figure; realism not an interest; ward of people; guardian of an important box/re...

Aka elephant mask. Bamileke (Cameroon, western grass elds region). c. 19th to 20th century C.E. Wood, woven rafIa, cloth, and beads. Beaded mask; Kuosi society; Cameroon; central Africa; masquerade; costumes; performers; honoring the king, social harmony; worn with leopard skin pelt and full body costume; leopard and elephant symbol of king's power Divine king could transform into elephant; leopard thought to transform into human; connection of divine rule and powerful animals; worn by court officials, warriors, titleholders Patterns relate to those on the leopard; animals are symbol of power; full of energy and dynamism; various materials, shapes and colors all brought together

Ikenga (shrine figure). Igbo peoples (Nigeria). c. 19th to 20th century C.E. Wood. 177. Nigeria, Ikenga are carved wooden figures; made for a warrior; seated on a stool, important signifier of honor; right hand holds a sword, expression of power; left holds a human head Ikenga means "Power of the right hand"; personal spirit of one's achievements, ability; motivates the user; ram horns big as the entire body; curl at the top; vertical and horizontal abstract horns  saying that they take things head on; emphasize power, aggression; decorative patterns; reference scarification; scars on forehead mean higher status; not a portrait; symbolic representation of power; authority and accomplishment 

Bundu or Sowei Helmet Mask (Ndoli Jowei) Sande Society, Mende peoples (West African forests of Sierra Leone and Liberia). 19th to 20th century C.E. Wood, cloth, and ber. helmet mask; Sande society; several groups participated in masquerade; tradition; worn on top of head; person's face obscured; men made mask; women wore it; ritual for/made by women deep black sheen; smooth, glistening surface; small mouth, petite ears; downcast eyes; reserved; elaborated hairstyle; continuing tradition; rolls of fat under chin; suggest enough weight to bear children; after initiation, meant to marry event intended to fatten her up; scarification marks on cheeks. 

Portrait mask (Mblo). Baule peoples (Côte d’Ivoire). Early 20th century C.E. Wood and pigment. central Côte d’Ivoire in West Africa have a rich carving tradition. Many sculpted figures and masks of human form are utilized in personal shrines and in masquerade performances. This mask was part of a secular masquerade in the village of Kami in the early 1900s. The Baule recognize two types of entertainment masks, Goli and Mblo. To perform a Mblo mask, like the one depicted, a masker in a cloth costume conceals his face with a small, wooden mask and dances for an audience accompanied by drummers, singers, dancers, and orators in a series of skits. To the Baule, sculpture serves many functions and these can shift over time and within different contexts. Masks like this one were not intended to be hung on a wall and appreciated for their physical characteristics; A carving of a figure can be utilized by practitioners to communicate with ancestors and spirits. The physical pres...

Female (Pwo) mask. Chokwe peoples (Democratic Republic of the Congo). Late 19th to early 20th century C.E. Wood, ber, pigment, and metal. Chokwe people, Democratic Republic of Congo Meant for dancing; resembles woman, worn by men Made by man; meant to honor women; particularly those young, fertile, or successful in childbirth; mothers; important stage in life Matrilineal culture; wood; very thin; graceful, fluid dancing; whole bodysuit sense of calm in the face; closed eyes, mouth; respected; doesn't need to open eyes, she's already knowing deep red; earth, oil; white powder around her eyes; symmetrical face; wide forehead accentuated by hairstyle; constant circles; pounded eyes around the eyes; tattoo patterns Broke away from larger culture; ideal woman; ideal virtues; fashionable hairstyle at the time; performed for women

Power gure (Nkisi n’kondi). Kongo peoples (Democratic Republic of the Congo). c. late 19th century C.E. Wood and metal. Sacred medicines and divine protection are central to the belief of the Kongo peoples (Democratic Republic of Congo).  Nkisi: represented as a container of sacred substances which are activated by supernatural forces that can be summoned into the physical world.  Visually, these minkisi can be as simple as pottery or vessels containing medicinal herbs and other elements determined to be beneficial in curing physical illness or alleviating social ills. In other instances minkisi can be represented as small bundles, shells, and carved wooden figures.  Minkisi represent the ability to both ‘contain’ and ‘release’ spiritual forces which can have both positive and negative consequences on the community. A power figure is a magical charm seemingly carved in the likeness of human being, meant to highlight its function in human affairs A nkisi nkond...

Ndop (portrait figure) of King Mishe miShyaang maMbul. Kuba peoples (Democratic Republic of the Congo). c. 1760–1780 C.E. Wood. During the first half of the eighteenth century, the Kuba King Mishe miShyaang maMbul was celebrated throughout his kingdom for his generosity by a  great number of his loyal subjects.  At the height of his reign in 1710, he commissioned an idealized portrait-statue called an ndop. With the commission of his ndop, Mishe miShyaang maMbul recorded his reign for posterity and solidified his accomplishments amongst the pantheon of his predecessors. The ndop that portrayed his likeness.  frican sculptures served as important historical markers within their communities. The ndop sculptural record helps freeze a moment in time that would otherwise be transformed during its transmission from generation to generation. Since information and history was transferred orally in Africa, sculptural traditions like the ndop can help us gain insight ...

Sika dwa ko (Golden Stool). Ashanti peoples (south central Ghana). c. 1700 C.E. Gold over wood and cast-gold attachments. Incredibly important to the Ashanti peoples, still used today; falls from the sky, miraculous object; wooden stool covered in gold, a symbol; more important than the ruler; sacred; symbolises royalty of Ashanti people; area rich in gold; responsible for gold trade in North Africa; gold reserved for royal use Taken by colonisers; Ashanti people hid the object; British hunted it down. Stools/inanimate objects valued in this culture; objects hold personal aura, the soul of the person. The gold stool is the soul of the Ashanti nation.