art history

House of the Vettii. Pompeii, Italy. Imperial Roman. c. second century B.C.E.; rebuilt c. 62–79 C.E. Cut stone and fresco. The House of the Vettii or Casa dei Vettii (VI xv,1) is a Roman townhouse (domus) located within the ruined ancient city of Pompeii, Italy. A volcanic eruption destroyed Pompeii in the year 79 C.E., thus preserving extraordinary archaeological remains of the Roman town as it was at the time of its cataclysmic destruction.  A house is, of course, a dwelling—but it is also a stage on which the rituals of daily life and social hierarchy would be performed. During the time of the Roman republic (fifth through first centuries B.C.E.), ranking aristocratic families (patricians) used domestic display as a way to reinforce social position and as a way to advance their own fortunes In his treatise on Roman architecture, the first century B.C.E. author Vitruvius outlines the key elements, proportions, and aesthetics of the Roman house, creating what has been treate...

Sarcophagus of the Spouses. Etruscan. c. 520 B.C.E. Terra cotta. The Sarcophagus of the Spouses is an anthropoid (human-shaped), painted terracotta sarcophagus found in the ancient Etruscan city of Caere (now Cerveteri, Italy). The sarcophagus, which would have originally contained cremated human remains The sarcophagus depicts a reclining man and woman on its lid. The pair rests on highly stylized cushions, just as they would have done at an actual banquet. The body of the sarcophagus is styled so as to resemble a kline (dining couch)  The male’s braids hang neatly at the back, splayed across the upper back and shoulders. The male’s beard and the hair atop his head is quite abstracted without any interior detail. Both figures have elongated proportions that are at home in the archaic period in the Mediterranean.  The male’s braids hang neatly at the back, splayed across the upper back and shoulders. The male’s beard and the hair atop his head is quite abstracted withou...

Acropolis. Athens, Greece. Iktinos and Kallikrates. c. 447–410 B.C.E. Marble. marble temple dedicated to athena overlooking athens, aegean sea most powerful city state symbol of the birth of democracy architectural refinement doric temple symbol of city's wealth and power gift to patron goddess mathematics, wisdom  In drama and philosophy, literature, art and architecture Athens was second to none. The city’s empire stretched from the  western Mediterranean to the Black Sea, creating enormous wealth. This paid for one of the biggest public building projects ever seen in Greece, which included the Parthenon. The temple known as the Parthenon was built on the Acropolis of Athens between 447 and 438 B.CE. It was part of a vast building program masterminded by the Athenian statesman Perikles. Inside the temple stood a colossal statue representing Athena, patron goddess of the city. The building itself was decorated with marble sculptures representing scenes from Ath...

Tomb of the Triclinium. Tarquinia, Italy. Etruscan. c. 480–470 B.C.E. Tufa and fresco. Funerary contexts constitute the most abundant archaeological evidence for the Etruscan civilization. The elite members of Etruscan society participated in elaborate funerary rituals that varied and changed according to both geography and time. The city of Tarquinia (known in antiquity as Tarquinii or Tarch(u)na), one of the most powerful and prominent Etruscan centers, is known for its painted chamber tombs. The Tomb of the Triclinium belongs to this group and its wall paintings reveal important information about not only Etruscan funeral culture but also about the society of the living. Chamber tombs are subterranean rock-cut chambers  The tombs are intended to contain not only the remains of the deceased but also various grave goods or offerings deposited along with the deceased. The Tomb of the Triclinium is composed of a single chamber with wall decorations painted in fresco.  Th...

Temple of Minerva (Veii, near Rome, Italy) and sculpture of Apollo. Master sculptor Vulca. c. 510–500 B.C.E. Original temple of wood, mud brick, or tufa (volcanic rock); terra cotta sculpture. Around 600 B.C.E., however, the desire to create monumental structures for the gods spread throughout Etruria, most likely as a result of Greek influence. While the desire to create temples for the gods may have been inspired by contact with Greek culture, Etruscan religious architecture was markedly different in material and design. These colorful and ornate structures typically had stone foundations; wood, mud-brick and terracotta  Vitruvius’s description of a floor plan with proportions that are 5:6 The temple is also roughly divided into two parts—a deep front porch with widely-spaced Tuscan columns and a back portion divided into three separate rooms. In addition to their internal organization and materials, what also made Etruscan temples noticeably distinct from Greek ones was a...

Athenian agora. Archaic through Hellenistic Greek. 600 B.C.E.–150 C.E. Plan. MOST IMPORTANT PUBLIC SPACE IN ATHENS PUBLIC DISCOURSE EXPERIMENT OF DEMOCRACY STARTED AS A MARKETPLACE THROUGH THE CLASSICAL BECAME A PLACE OF GOV WITH ADMINISTRATIVE BUILDINGS STOA - BUSINESS, CIVIC LIFE

REFERENCE TO ANOTHER PERSON AN IDEAL MADE FOR SON WHO DIED IN WAR GRAVE MARKER ARCHAIC PERIOD TO GODDESS ATHENA ARTEMIS OR ATHENA PAINTED, COLORS FADED FAINT MOVEMENT ARCHAIC SMILE REPRESENTS TRANSCENDENCE GEOMETRIC DESIGNS ON DRESS

Niobides Krater. Anonymous vase painter of Classical Greece known as the Niobid Painter. c. 460–450 B.C.E. Clay, red- gure technique (white highlights). 5TH CENTURY USED TO MIX WINE AND WATER (CALYX) MORTAL NIOBE HAD 14 CHILDREN STIFFNESS OF EARLY CLASSICAL RED FIGURE PAINTING FOLDS OF DRAPERY PERFECT PROFILE FIGURES OCCUPY DIFFERENT LEVELS, ILLUSION OF SPACE FIRST ARTIST TO PAINT FIGURES IN DEPTH SOLDIERS ASKING HERAKLES FOR PROTECTION, BATTLE AGAINST PERSIANS GREEK WALL PAINTING DOESNT NOT SURVIVE

Archaic period Kouros (the singular form) is a term used to describe a type of statue of a male figure produced in marble during the Archaic period of Greek art. The kouros was not intended as a realistic portrait of the deceased, but an idealized representation of values and virtues to which the dead laid claim: youthful beauty, athleticism and aristocratic bearing, among others. They all have a conventional pose, where the head and body can be divided equally by a central line, and the legs are parted with the weight placed equally front and back. The male figures, usually in the form of naked young men, acted both as grave markers and as votive offerings The female figures served similar functions, but differed from their male counterparts in that they were elaborately draped. Classical period By around 500 B.C.E.  "rule by the people," or democracy, had emerged in the city of Athens. Following the defeat of a Persian invasion in 480-479 B.C.E., mainland Greece and ...

Last judgment of Hu-Nefer, from his tomb (page from the Book of the Dead). New Kingdom, 19th Dynasty. c. 1275 B.C.E. Painted papyrus scroll. FRAGMENT OF PAPYRUS SCROLL PAPERLIKE SUBSTANCE  MOST IMP SURFACE FOR WRITING BOOK OF THE DEAD ANCIENT TEXT  SPELLS, PRAYERS, INCANTATIONS SETS OF INSTRUCTIONS FOR AFTERLIFE  CAME TO BE USED BY PEOPLE OF HIGH RANK  TOMB OF HU NEFER, A SCRIBE PRIESTLY STATUS LITERATE, HIGH STATUS IN EGYPTIAN SCULPTURE SCENE OF JUDGMENT  AFTERLIFE?  DISTINGUISHED BY WHITE ROBE  GUIDED BY ANUBIS, ASSOCIATED W/ MUMMIFICATION, DEATH ANKH - SYMBOL OF ETERNAL LIFE ANUBIS ADJUSTING A SCALE, BALANCE MA'AT DIVINE ORDER, ETHICAL LIFE PASS TEST, ACCESS TO AFTERLIFE THOTH RECORDING PROCEEDINGS  HUNEFER INTRODUCED TO OSIRIS BY HIS SON, HORUS HORUS FALCON ENTHRONED, SYMBOLS OF EGYPT, LOTUS BLOSSOM SYMBOL OF ETERNAL LIFE HORUS'S CHILDREN, FOUR, CARDINAL POINTS; THEY KEEP DEAD PRESERVED HORUS REPRESENTED AS AN EYE ...

Tutankhamun’s tomb, innermost coffin. New Kingdom, 18th Dynasty. c. 1323 B.C.E. Gold with inlay of enamel and semiprecious stones. Tutankhamun was only the age of nine when he became king of Egypt during the 18th dynasty of the New Kingdom (c. 1332–1323 B.C.E.) His nearly intact tomb held a wealth of objects that give us unique insights into this period of ancient Egyptian history. Tutankhamun ruled after the Amarna age, when the pharaoh Akhenaten, Tutankhamun’s probable father, turned the religious attention of the kingdom to the worship of the god Aten, the sun disc.  Tutankhamen shifted the focus of the country’s worship back to the god Amun and returned the religious center back to Thebes.  Akhenaten moved his capital city to the site of Akhetaten (also known as Amarna), in Middle Egypt The outer two coffins were crafted in wood and covered in gold along with many semiprecious stones, such as lapis lazuli and turquoise. The inner coffin, however, was made of solid...

Akhenaton, Nefertiti, and three daughters. New Kingdom (Amarna), 18th Dynasty. c. 1353–1335 B.C.E. Limestone. OLD KINGDOM, MIDDLE KINGDOM, NEW KINGDOM - ALL CONSISTENT RADICAL CHANGE AKHENATON CHANGES STATE RELIGION PREVIOUSLY WORSHIPPED AMUN, NOW ATEN  HIS WIFE AND HIM, ONLY ONES WITH ACCESS TO NEW GOD EGYPT RETURNS TO ITS ORIGINAL RELIGION AFTER AKHENATON DIES  VERY BRIEF PERIOD IN EGYPTIAN HISTORY SHIFT IN STYLE SUNKEN RELIEF CARVING PLACED IN PRIVATE DOMESTIC ENVIRONMENT ALTAR IN SOMEONES HOME SENSE OF DOMESTICITY HOLDING DAUGHTER TENDERLY  SWOLLEN BELLY, THIN ARMS, ELONGATED SKULLS CURVILINEAR FORMS RATHER THAN RECTILINEAR FORMS COMPOSITE VIEW OF BODY PROFILE FACE, FRONTAL EYE ATTENTION TO DRAPERY SOFTNESS SHOULDERS SQUARED ATEN RENDERED AS A SUN DISK MONOTHEISTIC RELIGION RAYS OF LIGHT 

Mortuary temple of Hatshepsut. Near Luxor, Egypt. New Kingdom, 18th Dynasty. c. 1473–1458 B.C.E. Sandstone, partially carved into a rock cliff, and red granite. MIDDLE KINGDOM AND NEW KINGDOM  GRANITE SCULPTURE HATSHEPSUT FEMALE PHARAOH  DIVINE BIRTH, ORACLE PREDICTED SHE WOULD BECOME KING COMMISSIONED TEMPLES, SCULPTURES POWER OF ART TO CONVEY ROYAL AUTHORITY SCULPTURE MADE FOR TEMPLE, 10+ OF THESE SPHINX  AGAINST VAST CLIFF FACE  TOWERING CLIFF REGULAR ORDER AND STRUCTURE OF BUILT ENVIRONMENT PERMANENCE, STABILITY TRYING TO ASSERT STABILITY THROUGH ARCHITECTURE  ADOPTS PAST FORMS TO SHOW HERSELF AS KING SYMMETRY, STONE, SENSE OF TIMELESSNESS HEAD CLOTH SYMBOL OF KING, BEARD  VISUAL LANGUAGE OF KINGSHIP  MASCULINE  BROAD SHOULDERS FEMININITY DEEMPHASIZED  BREASTS REDUCED  CO-RULER DESTROYED MANY HATSHEPSUT RELATED PIECES OFFERING TO GOD SEEN IN A NEGATIVE LIGHT  ENORMOUS POWER, INFLUENCE; SCULPTURE, ARC...

Temple of Amun-Re and Hypostyle Hall. Karnak, near Luxor, Egypt. New Kingdom, 18th and 19th Dynasties. Temple: c. 1550 B.C.E.; hall: c. 1250 B.C.E. Cut sandstone and mud brick. The massive temple complex of Karnak was the principal religious center of the god Amun-Re in Thebes during the New Kingdom (which lasted from 1550 until 1070 B.C.E.). The complex remains one of the largest religious complexes in the world. The site was first developed during the Middle Kingdom (2055-1650 B.C.E.) and was initially modest in scale but as new importance was placed on the city of Thebes, subsequent pharaohs began to place their own mark on Karnak.  was not only the location of the cult image of Amun and a place for the god to dwell on earth but also a working estate for the priestly community who lived on site. Additional buildings included a sacred lake, kitchens, and workshops for the production of religious accoutrements. One of the greatest architectural marvels of Karnak is the hypo...

King Menkaura and queen. Old Kingdom, Fourth Dynasty. c. 2490–2472 B.C.E. Greywacke. Serene ethereal beauty, raw royal power, and evidence of artistic virtuosity have rarely been simultaneously captured as well as in this breathtaking, nearly life-size statue of the pharaoh Menkaure and a queen. Smooth as silk, the meticulously finished surface of the dark stone captures the physical ideals of the time and creates a sense of eternity and immortality even today. the three primary pyramids at Giza were constructed during the height of a period known as the Old Kingdom and served as burial places, memorials, and places of worship for a series of deceased rulers--the largest belonging to King Khufu, the middle to his son Khafre, and the smallest of the three to Khufu's grandson, Menkaure. Pyramids are not stand-alone structures. Those at Giza formed only a part of a much larger complex that included a temple at the base of the pyramid itself, long causeways and corridors, small s...

Great Pyramids (Menkaura, Khafre, Khufu) and Great Sphinx. Giza, Egypt. Old Kingdom, Fourth Dynasty. c. 2550–2490 B.C.E. Cut limestone. The three primary pyramids on the Giza plateau were built over the span of three generations by the rulers Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure. Each pyramid was part of a royal mortuary complex that also included a temple at its base and a long stone causeway  Being buried near the pharaoh was a great honor and helped ensure a prized place in the afterlife. The shape of the pyramid was a solar reference, perhaps intended as a solidified version of the rays of the sun. Texts talk about the sun’s rays as a ramp the pharaoh mounts to climb to the sky The pyramid was considered a place of regeneration for the deceased ruler.  2,000 conscripted peasants.  The Great Pyramid, the largest of the three, was built by the pharaoh Khufu The pyramid contains an estimated 2,300,000 blocks, some of which are upwards of 50 ton and angled, outer casing...

Seated scribe. Saqqara, Egypt. Old Kingdom, Fourth Dynasty. c. 2620–2500 B.C.E. Painted limestone. OLD KINGDOM 4,000 YRS OLD LIFELIKE PAINTED ANCIENT EGYPTIAN CULTURE PIGMENT SURVIVES LIMESTONE CRYSTAL AWARENESS, INTELLIGENCE UNIDEALIZED ROLLS OF FAT RELAXED HUMANLIKE FORMALITY FRONTAL, MEANT TO BE SEEN SYMMETRY MOMENTARY, EGYPTIANS CONCERNED W THE ETERNAL CAIRO, FOUND IN NECROPOLIS FUNERARY SCULPTURE MEANT FOR TOMB SCRIBES HIGHLY REGARDED FEW WHO COULD READ AND WRITE DELICACY LONG AND ELEGANT FINGERNAILS HIGH CHEEKBONES WHITE KILT RICH SKIN

Statues of votive figures, from the Square Temple at Eshnunna (modern Tell Asmar, Iraq). Sumerian.c. 2700 B.C.E. Gypsum inlaid with shell and black limestone. ALABASTAR FIGURES BURIED IN FLOOR OF TEMPLE 12 IN TOTAL, MOST MALE NORTHERN MESOPOTAMIA EXPRESSION OF EARLY DYNASTIC SUMERIAN ART TEMPLE DEDICATED TO ABU DEVELOPED CITY TRANSITIONAL PERIOD RIGHT AFTER BRONZE AGE, CIVILIZATIONS FOUNDED WIDE EYES, ATTENTIVE LOOKING AT SCULPTURE OF GOD CONTINUALLY ATTENTIVE TO GOD STANDS ERECT HANDS CLASPED TOGETHER BROAD SHOULDERS, FRONTALITY HAIR PARTED AT CENTER WAVES, BRAIDS FINE INCISING AT BOTTOM OF HIS SKIRT CYLINDRICAL  INLAID SHELL EYES BLACK LIMESTONE PUPILS VOTIVE IMAGES, WORSHIPPERS; NO KINGS DEPICTED SYMBOL OF PEOPLE; DOESNT LITERALLY REFLECT A PERSON HUMBLE  V-SHAPED TORSO  GEOMETRIC PATTERNING UNNATURALISTIC  OBTUSE NOSE STATIC, SYMMETRICAL GIVES SENSE OF TIMELESSNESS FOREVER OFFERING PRAYERS TO THE GOD

Palette of King Narmer. Predynastic Egypt. c. 3000–2920 B.C.E. Greywacke. the Narmer Palette, on the other hand, is so valuable that it has never been permitted to leave the country. Discovered among a group of sacred implements ritually buried in a deposit within an early temple of the falcon god Horus at the site of Hierakonpolis (the capital of Egypt during the pre-dynastic period), this large ceremonial object is one of the most important artifacts from the dawn of Egyptian civilization made of smooth greyish-green siltstone, is decorated on both faces with detailed low relief. These scenes show a king, identified by name as Narmer The high quality of the workmanship, its original function as a ritual object dedicated to a god, and the complexity of the imagery clearly indicate that this was a significant object palettes were generally flat, minimally decorated stone objects used for grinding and mixing minerals for cosmetics. Dark eyeliner was an essential aspect of life i...

Audience Hall (apadana) of Darius and Xerxes. Persepolis, Iran. Persian. c. 520–465 ​B.C.E. Limestone. By the early fifth century B.C.E. the Achaemenid (Persian) Empire ruled an estimated 44% of the human population of planet Earth. Through regional administrators the Persian kings controlled a vast territory which they constantly sought to expand.  Famous for monumental architecture, Persian kings established numerous monumental centers, among those is Persepolis (today, in Iran). The great audience hall of the Persian kings Darius and Xerxes presents a visual microcosm of the Achaemenid empire—making clear, through sculptural decoration, that the Persian king ruled over all of the subjugated ambassadors and vassals (who are shown bringing tribute in an endless eternal procession). the Achaemenid Empire (First Persian Empire) was an imperial state of Western Asia founded by Cyrus the Great and flourishing from c. 550-330 B.C.E. The empire’s territory was vast, stretching fro...

Lamassu from the citadel of Sargon II, Dur Sharrukin (modern Khorsabad, Iraq). Neo-Assyrian. c. 720–705 B.C.E. Alabaster. CONTROLLED NEAR EAST FROM 1000 BCE-500 BCE MODERN DAY IRAQ ASSYRIAN KINGS ESTABLISHED PALACES EXCAVATED GUARDIAN FIGURES  PROTECTED GATES OF CITY, TEMPLE, ROYAL PALACE WINGED BULLS, HEADS OF MEN  LAMASSU  FEARSOME, POWERFUL  EXPRESS POWER OF ASSYRIAN KING  STOOD BETWEEN HUGE ARCHES  STRUCTURAL PURPOSE  CROWN, DOUBLE HORNS, RING OF FEATHERS DELICATE; DETAILED HAIR; UNIBROW EARRINGS; DECORATIVE; COMPLEX BEARD; RINGLETS INSCRIPTIONS IN CUNEIFORM; PRAISE KING; DAMNATION OF THOSE WHO THREATEN KING VEINS, MUSCLE, LEGS  NATURALISTIC YET IMAGINITIVE AUTHORITY OF KING; FORTIFICATION OF PALACE AND KING  AWESTRUCK 

The Code of Hammurabi. Babylon (modern Iran). Susian. c. 1792–1750 B.C.E. Basalt. LANGUAGE OF AKKADIAN  USED FOR OFFICIAL GOVERNMENTAL DECREES 4,000 YRS OLD CARVED IN RELIEF  INSCRIBED CUNEIFORM  DIVIDED INTO THREE PARTS PROLOGUE  HAMMURABI  KING ON LEFT FACING SUN GOD, GOD OF JUSTICE  HORNED CROWN, FLAMES EMANATE FROM HIS SHOULDERS  COMPOSITE VIEW  BY SHOWING GOD HE DEMONSTRATES THAT THESE ARE DIVINE LAWS  SCEPTER AND RING; SIGNS OF POWER; GIVING HIM POWER MORE THAN 300 GODS  ACTION AND CONSEQUENCES  AGRICULTURAL ISSUES, IRRIGATION EXPRESS CONCERNS, POINTS OF TENSION IN THE SOCIETY FAMILY LIFE

Egypt, Iran, Syria, Jordan, Israel, Lebanon, the Gulf states and Turkey. We often refer to this region as the Near or Middle East. Mesopotamia remains a region of stark geographical contrasts: vast deserts rimmed by rugged mountain ranges, punctuated by lush oases. The region lacks stone (for building), precious metals and timber. Historically, it has relied on the long-distance trade of its agricultural products to secure these materials.  Here, for the first time, thanks to ample food and a strong administrative class, the West develops a very high level of craft specialization and artistic production. SUMERIANS The ancient Sumerians, the "black-headed ones," lived in the southern part of what is now Iraq. The heartland of Sumer lay between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, in what the Greeks later called Mesopotamia. This territory, once skillfully irrigated, proved very fertile The Sumerians were characteristically inventive, and are likely to have been responsi...

Standard of Ur from the Royal Tombs at Ur (modern Tell el-Muqayyar, Iraq). Sumerian. c. 2600–2400 B.C.E. Wood inlaid with shell, lapis lazuli, and red limestone. CITY STATE UR  MODERN DAY IRAQ MESOPOTAMIA  GREAT EARLY CITIES  UNKNOWN PURPOSE  INTENTIONALLY BURIED  ELABORATE BURIAL RITUAL  DISCOVERED IN 1920S, 1930S ELABORATELY DECORATED  CARRIED  THREE REGISTERS  SHELL (IRAQ) LONG DISTANCE TRADE LAPIS LAZULI (AFGHANISTAN)  RED STONE (INDIA)  AGRICULTURE SUCCESSFUL, BETWEEN TIGRIS AND EUPHRATES RIVER SURPLUS OF FOOD ORGANIZATION OF SOCIETY  MORE TIME TO DEDICATE TO ARTS  DIFFERENT PEOPLE, DIFFERENT ROLES POSSIBLE THIS IS DEMONSTRATED IN THE PIECE  WEALTHIEST, MOST POWERFUL FIGURES AT THE TOP COMMON LABORERS IN THE BOTTOM FIGURES BRINGING THINGS TO A DESTINATION; ON BACKS  ANIMALS; SHEEPS, BULL ANIMALS FOR SACRIFICE, TAXATION  COLLECTION FOR THE KING RULER LARGER; DIFFERENT CLOTHE...

White Temple and its ziggurat. Uruk (modern Warka, Iraq). Sumerian. c. 3500–3000 B.C.E. Mud brick. Uruk (modern Warka in Iraq)—where city life began more than five thousand years ago and where the first writing emerged—was clearly one of the most important places in southern Mesopotamia. Within Uruk, the greatest monument was the Anu Ziggurat on which the White Temple was built. Dating to the late 4th millennium B.C.E. (the Late Uruk Period, or Uruk III) and dedicated to the sky god Anu been visible from a great distance—even over the defensive walls of the city. A ziggurat is a built raised platform with four sloping sides—like a chopped-off pyramid. Ziggurats are made of mud-bricks—the building material of choice in the Near East, as stone is rare  Ziggurats were not only a visual focal point of the city, they were a symbolic one, as well—they were at the heart of the theocratic political system seeing the ziggurat towering above the city, one made a visual connecti...